In the years following the death of Onuist, King of Picts, in 761, the sources contain much less about Pictish affairs than we saw in the first half of the century. However any gaps seem to be filled with descriptions of the weather – and particularly bad weather – along with astrological and natural or celestial occurrences which both tell us about the hardship the people must have suffered at the time, but also seem to be helping set up a gloomy and ominous narrative. As we shall see, these descriptions were not limited to the Annals covering the north.

In the year of the Pictish king’s death, we hear first from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which describes “a great winter.”[1]

In 762 the Annals of Ulster tell us first of a “great snowfall and dark moon[2]” and then “a bright night in autumn”[3]. Both darkness and light appear to be worthy or reporting. That same Annal then continues in 763 by reporting “a dark sun in the third hour of the day.”[4]

After these events, it seems that the winter of 763-4 was catastrophic. The Irish Annals tells us that “there was heavy snow which lasted for three months”[5], while a source from Durham describes how:

“Deep snow bound by frost, incomparable with anything in the past, overwhelmed the land from the beginning of winter until nearly the middle of spring. Because of its force, for the most part, trees and vegetables withered and many sea creatures were found dead.”[6]

This dreadful weather was not confined to the British Isles. The Royal Frankish Annals report a “strong winter”[7] but more bizarre is the account we have from a Byzantine aristocratic monk who, due to his writings, became known as Theophanes the Confessor. In his Chronicle for the year 763 he tells us how there was a bitter cold, which started in October, “not only in our land, but even more so to the east, north and west.” The sea froze over and when the ice broke up, huge icebergs were seen travelling across the Bosphorus and into the sea around modern Turkey. Theophanes relates how as a child “I climbed on one of these icebergs and played on it together with some thirty boys of the same age. Some of my wild and tame animals also died… All of the inhabitants of the city – men, women and children – ceaselessly watched these things and would return home with lamentation and tears, not knowing what to say.”

Not to be outdone on the portentous side of things, the Byzantine monk also describes how “in the month of March the stars were seen falling from heaven all at once, so that all observers thought it was the end of the present world. Then there was a great drought.”[8]

That drought was Europe-wide. In the north, there was “a great drought beyond anything normal[9]” and the inevitable “great scarcity and famine.”[10]

Further disasters followed. A “bloody flux (dysentery) in Ireland”[11] and a “shortage of bread[12]” bookended “a horrible and wonderful sign seen in the stars at night.”[13] Sadly we have no further details of this sign, although perhaps it was the same as the Byzantine falling stars? It certainly chimes with the chronicler from Durham who wrote that “Flashes of fire were seen in the air, such as formerly appeared on the night of the first of January”[14] The chronicler here is not referring to an early medieval Hogmanay complete with fireworks, but actually to an event he described for the year 745 when something similar happened.

It got worse in the following years. In 769 there was an earthquake, famine and an outbreak of leprosy (which killed many). The Annals do report that there was an abundance of acorns which are at least edible (after careful preparation)[15]. In 773 there was another drought and heat, causing lack of bread and a further abundance of acorns.[16]

In 777 summer became winter[17]  and there was more dysentery. This time the cattle also suffered – with large numbers of the animals dying over the next three years. Consequently there was a lot of human death too[18], perhaps helped along (in Ireland at least) by a smallpox pandemic[19].

In 779 there was a great windstorm at the end of autumn[20] and the following year saw a huge abnormal snowfall in April[21].

The violent thunderstorm[22] which destroyed the monastery of Cluain Brónaig (Clonebrony, in the middle of the island of Ireland, now County Longford) in 783 seems like a minor event in comparison with all of the above but disease returned in 786 – “a pestilence called scamach” (pnuemonia)[23] –while two years later the “moon became red like blood” in March[24].

The most famous ominous event of this time is reported in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 793:

“In this year there came dreadful warning signs over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most miserably: there were lightning storms, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the sky. These signs were soon followed by a great famine.”[25]

By the year 801, the excitement (at least about the weather) had died down. The final meteorological report from this period came in that year. There was “a rainy summer.”[26]

Although some of this might be deemed to be superstitious hindsight heralding the dangers and challenges which will appear in the north from the 790s, there were clearly real and disastrous consequences for the people (and their livelihoods), who are for once briefly mentioned in the sources. How much the impact of these disasters contributed to the confused and unstable political situation in northern Britain after 761 is uncertain, but it is to that story we will return in the next post.

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[1] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 761: “Her wæs se myccla winter”

[2] Annals of Ulster 762.1: “Nix magna ⁊ luna tenebrosa”

[3] Annals of Ulster 762.4: “Nox lucida in autumn”

[4] Annals of Ulster 763.5: “Sol tenebrosus in hora .iii. diei”

[5] Annals of Ulster 764.1 and Annals of Tigernach 764.1 repeat from the same original source: “Nix magna .iii.bus fere mensibus.

[6] Symeon of Durham: Historia Regum, 764: “Anno DCC.lxiv nix ingens gelu ligata omnibus retro sæculis incomparabils, a principio hiemis pene usque ad medium veris teram oppressit. Cuius vi aroberes oleraque magna ex parte aruerunt, ac marina animalia multa inventa sunt mortua”

[7] Annales Regni Francorum 763: “Et facta est hiems valida”

[8] The Chronicle of Theophanes 434 (the year 761). The original can be found here while a useful translation (which I have used – my Greek is nowhere good enough these days) can be found here. The relevant passage is quoted in full below: “To à’ αὐτῷ ἔτει ἀπὺ ἀρχῆς τοῦ Ὀκτωβρίου μηνὺς γέγονε κρύος µέγα καὶ πικρύτατον, οὐ κατὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν γῆν µόνον, ἀλλὰ πολλῷ μᾶλλον κατὰ ἀνατολὴν καὶ ἄρκτον καὶ δύσιν, ὥστε τὴν ἀρκτώαν τοῦ Πόντου παραλίαν ἐπὶ ϱ’ µίλια TO πέλαγος ἀπολιθω(vet ἐκ τοῦ κρύους ἐπὶ A πήχεις τὸ βάθος, καὶ ἀπὺ Ζιγχίας µέχρι τοῦ «ανουβίου καὶ τοῦ Κοῦφι ποταμοῦ τοῦ «άναστρί τε καὶ «4άναπρι καὶ τῶν Νεκροπήλων καὶ τῆς λοιπῆς ἀκτῆς µέχρι Μεσημβρίας καὶ Μηδείας τὰ ὅμοια πεπονθότων. τοῦ δὲ τοιούτου πάγους ἐπιχιονηθέντος ηὐξήθη ἐπὶ ἄλλας κ΄ πήχεις, ὥστε συμμορφωθῆναι τὴν θάλασσαν τῇ ξηρᾶ. καὶ πεζοβατεῖσθαι ὕπερθεν τοῦ κρύους ἀπύ τε Χαζαρίας. Βουλγαρίας καὶ τῶν λοιπῶν παρακειµένων ἐθνῶν, ὑπό τε ἀνθρώπων ἀγρίων τε καὶ ἡμέρων ζώων. τῷ δὲ Φεβρουαρίῳ μηνὶ τῆς αὐτῆς δευτέρας ὑνδικτιῶνος τοῦ τοιούτου πάγους κατὰ θεοῦ κέλευσιν εἰς πλεῖστα καὶ διάφορα ὀροφανῆ τµήµατα διαιρεθέντος, καὶ τῇ τῶν ἀνέμων βία ἐπὶ «{αφνουσίαν καὶ τὺ ἹἹερὺν κατενεχθέντων, οὕτω διὰ τοῦ Στενοῦ ἐπὶ τὴν πόλιν ἔφθασαν µέχρι τῆς Προποντίδος καὶ τῶν νήσων καὶ ᾽4βύδου πᾶσαν τὴν παραλίαν ἀκτὴν ἐπλήρωσαν. ὧν αὐτόπται καὶ ἡμεῖς γεγόναµεν ἐπιβάντες ἐπὶ ἑνὺς αὐτῶν σὺν καί τισιν ὁμήλιξι λ΄ καὶ παίζοντες ἐπάνω αὐτοῦ. εἶχον δὲ κρὶ ζῶα ἄγριά τε καὶ ἥμερα τεθνεῶτα. πᾶς δὲ ὁ βουλόμενος &zó Σοφιανῶν ἕως τῆς πόλεως, καὶ ἀπὺ Χρυσοπόλεως ἕως τοῦ ἁγίου Μάµαντος καὶ τῶν ΙΓ αλάτου ἀκωλύτως διὰ ξηρᾶς ἐβάδιζον. fv δὲ ἐξ αὐτῶν προσραγὲν τῇ τῆς ᾽ἀκροπόλεως σκάλα συνέτριψεν αὐτήν. ἕτερον δὲ παμµέγεθες τῷ τείχει προσραγὲν τοῦτο µεγάλως ἐδόνησεν. ὡς καὶ τοὺς ἔνδοθεν oixovg συμμετασχεῖν τοῦ σάλου. εἰς τρία δὲ διαρραγὲν ἔζωσε τὴν πύλιν ἀπὺ τῶν Μαγγάνων ἕως τοῦ Βοοσφόρου, οὗ τινος TO ὕψος ὑπερεῖχε τὰ τείχη” πάντες δὲ oí τῆς πόλεως ἄνδρες τε καὶ γυναῖκες καὶ παῖδες ἀδιαλείπτως τῇ δέᾳ τούτων προσἑκαρτέρουν καὶ μετὰ θρήνων καὶ δακρύων οἴἶκοι ἀνέκαμπτον, ἆποροῦντες Tí εἰπεῖν πρὺς τοῦτο. | τῷ Ó’ αὐτῷ ἔτει μηνὶ Magrío ἀστέρες ἀθρόως ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ πίπτοντες ὤφθησαν, ὡς πάντας τοὺς ὑρῶντας τὴν τοῦ παρόντος αἰῶνος ὑπολαμβάνειν εἶναι συντέλειαν αὐχμός τε πολὺς γέγονεν, ὡς ξηρανθῆναι καὶ πηγάς.

[9] Annals of Tigernach 764.5 and Annals of Ulster 764.7: “Siccitas magna ultra modum.”

[10] Annals of Ulster 764.4: “Int ascalt mor ⁊ fames”

[11] Annals of Ulster 764.10: “Riuth fola in tota Hibernia”, also reported in Annals of Tigernach 764.9

[12] Annals of Ulster 765.9 and Annals of Tigernach 765.10: “Defectio panis”

[13] Annals of Ulster 765.1: “In nocte signum horribile ⁊ mirabile in stellis uisum est.”

[14] Symeon of Durham: Historia Regnum, 765 “Anno DCC.lxv ignei ictus in aere visi sunt, quales quondam apparuerunt tempore nocturno kal. Januarii”

[15] Annals of Ulster 769.6: “Terremotus ⁊ fames; ⁊ morbus leprę multos inuasit. Habundantia dairmesa.” (“earthquake and famine and deadly leprosy which attacked many. There was an abundance of oakmast”)

[16] Annals of Ulster 773.4: “Insolita siccitas ⁊ ardor solis ut pene panis omnis deperiit. Deirmess mor inna deadh.” (“Unusual drought and heat of the sun so that there was almost no bread. Oakmast afterwards in abundance”)

[17] Annals of Ulster 777.4: “Ind ule gaim issind samradh, .i. flechodh mor ⁊ gaeth mor.” (“the whole winter in summer: heavy rain and gales”)

[18] Annals of Innifallen 779.2: “Bo ár ⁊ mortlait mór isin bliadain sein” (“cattle disease and lots of death in this year”)

[19] Annals of Ulster 779.7: “In bolggach for Erinn h-uile.”

[20] Annals of Ulster 779.8: “Uentus maximus in fine autumni.”

[21] Annals of Ulster 780.8: “Nix magna in Aprilio”; Annals of Innisfallen 780.2: “Nix ultra modum” (“abnormal snow”)

[22] Annals of Ulster 783.4: Ignis horribilis tota nocte Sabbati ⁊ tonitruum h-i .iiii. non. Augusti ⁊ uentus magnus ⁊ ualidissimus distruxit monasterium Cluana Bronaigh. (“Terrible lightning through the night of the Sabbath and thunder on the 2^nd of August and a great and strong wind destroyed the monastery of Cluain Brónaig”)

[23] Annals of Ulster 786.9: “Pestis que dicitur scamach.”

[24] Annals of Ulster 788.4: “Luna rubra similitudine sanguinis”

[25] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 793: “Her wæron reðe forebecna cumene ofer Norðanhymbra land 7 þet folc earmlice bregdon: þet wæron ormete ligræscas, 7 wæron geseowene fyrene dracan on þam lyfte fleogende. Þam tacnum sona fyligde mycel hunger”

[26] Annals of Ulster 801.9: “aestas pluuialis”